2022自考0830现代语言学自考串讲自考必过笔记

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1、0830 - 现代语言学笔记根据教材现代语言学何兆熊、梅德明主编 外语教学与研究出版社笔记根据目录Chapter 1 Introduction 1. What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition 1.2 The scope of linguistics 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 1.3.3 Speech and writing 1.3.4 Langue and paro

2、le 1.3.5 Competence and performance 2. What is language? 2.1 Definitions of language 2.2 Design features Study questions Chapter 2 Phonology 1. The phonic medium of language 2. Phonetics 2.1 What is phonetics? 2.2 Organs of speech 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow tran

3、scriptions 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 3. Phonology 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 3.4 Some rules in ph

4、onology 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.5 Suprasegmental featuresstress, tone, intonation 3.5.1 Stress 3.5.2 Tone 3.5.3 Intonation Study questions Chapter 3 Morphology 1. Definition 2. Morpheme 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 2.2 Types of

5、morphemes 2.2.1 Free morphemes 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 2.2.3 Morphological rules 3. Compounding 3.1 Types of compound words 3.2 Features of compounds Study questions Chapter 4 Syntax 1.Syntax as a system of rules 2. Sentence structure 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 2.2 Types of sentences 2.2.1

6、 The simple sentence 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.2.3 The complex sentence 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3. Syntactic categories 3.1 Lexical

7、 categories 3.2 Phrasal categories 4. Grammatical relations 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 X-bar theory 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 6.2 Other types of movement 6.3 D-structure and S-

8、structure 6.4 Move a general movement rule 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar 7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar Study questions Chapter 5 Semantics 1. What is semantics? 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 The

9、 conceptualist view 2.3 Contextualism 2.4 Behaviorism 3. Lexical meaning 3.1 Sense and reference 3.2 Major sense relations 3.2.1 Synonymy 3.2.2 Polysemy 3.2.3 Homonymy 3.2.4 Hyponymy 3.2.5 Antonymy 4. Sense relations between sentences 5. Analysis of meaning 5.1 Componential analysisa way to analyze

10、lexical meaning 5.2 Predication analysisa way to analyze sentence meaning Study questions Chapter 6 Pragmatics 1. What is pragmatics? 1.1 Definition 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 1.3 Context 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 2. Speech act theory 3. Principle of conversation Study questions C

11、hapter 7 Historical Linguistics 1. The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 2. The nature of language change 3. The historical development of English 3.1 Major periods in the history of English 3.1.1 Old English 3.1.2 Middle English 3.1.3 Modern English 3.2 linguistic change

12、of English 3.2.1 Sound change 3.2.2 Morphological change 3.2.3 Syntactic change 3.2.4 Lexical change 3.2.5 Semantic change 4. Language family 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 4.2 The Indo-English language family 5. The causes of language change 5.1 Sound assimilation 5.2 Rule simplifica

13、tion and regularization 5.3 Internal borrowing 5.4 Elaboration 5.5 Sociological triggers 5.6 Cultural transmission 5.7 Childrens approximation toward the adult grammar Study questions Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 1. Language variation 1.1 Speech community 1.2 Speech variety 1.3 Regional variation 1.4

14、Social variation 1.5 Stylistic variation 1.6 Idiolectal variation 2. Standard and nonstandard language 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 2.2 Lingua francas 2.3 Pidgins 2.4 Creoles 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 3.1 Diglossia 3.2 Bilingualism 4. Ethnic dialect 4.1 Black English, a case study of et

15、hnic dialect 4.2 The social environment of Black English 5. Social dialect 5.1 Education varieties 5.2 Age varieties 5.3 Gender varieties 5.4 Register varieties 5.5 Address terms 5.6 Slang 5.7 Linguistic taboo 5.8 Euphemism Study questions Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 1. The biological foundations of

16、 language 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage 1.2 The human brain 1.3 Brain lateralization 2. Linguistic lateralization 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language 2.2 Dichotic listening research 3. The language centers 3.1 Brocas area 3.2 Wernickes area 3.3 The angular gyrus 3.4 Language perception, compr

17、ehension and production 4. The critical period for language acquisition 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age 5. Language and thought 5.1 Early views on language and thought 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 5.3 Arguments against the

18、Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 5.3.1 Words and meaning 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 5.3.3 Translation 5.3.4 Second language acquisition 5.3.5 Language and world views 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and thought 5.4.1 Major functions of language 5.4.2 The development and blending of language 5.4.3

19、Thinking without language 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system to express thought 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. First language acquisition 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 1.2 Language acquisition as the

20、acquisition of grammatical rules 1.3 The role of input and interaction 1.4 The role of instruction 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement 1.6 The role of imitation 2. Stages of first language acquisition 2.1 The prelinguistic stage 2.2 The one-word stage 2.3 The two-word stage 2.4 The multiwor

21、d stage 3. The development of the grammatical system 3.1 The development of phonology 3.2 The development of syntax 3.3 The development of morphology 3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics 4. Second language acquisition 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning 4.2 Transfer and interference 4.3 Error An

22、alysis and the natural route of SLA development 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization 4.5 The role of input 4.6 The role of formal instruction 4.7 Individual learner factors 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language acquisition 4.7.2 Motivation 4.7.3 Acculturation 4.7.4 Personality Study questions Sug

23、gested Answers to Study Questions An English-Chinese GlossaryA Detailed Note for Modern LinguisticsChapter 1: Introduction1.Define the following terms:1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2).General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called genera

24、l linguistics.3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findin

25、gs to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time is a synchronic study.5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes t

26、hrough time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeares time is a diachronic study.6).Language competence: The ideal users knowledge of the rule

27、s of his language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7).Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language users knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system

28、 shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conv

29、entions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical

30、 connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Dua

31、lity: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the pas

32、t, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted,

33、 but instead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigate

34、s not any particular language, but languages in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠旳，真实旳) language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way

35、 language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学旳重要分支是什么每个分支旳研究对象是什么？)Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 1)General linguis

36、tics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication 3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put togethe

37、r and used to convey meaning in communication 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of m

38、eaning not in isolation, but in the context of use 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society 9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic f

39、indings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguist

40、ics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics（数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）. 4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与老式语法有什么区别？) Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on high (religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language

41、 users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is correct or not. 5.I

42、s modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性） or diachronic（历时性）? Why? (The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.)Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language

43、. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons:Fi

44、rst, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form.Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire the

45、ir native language.7.Saussure 是如何辨别语言langue和言语parole旳？(The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech c

46、ommunity, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually

47、use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8.Chomsky旳语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the

48、late 1950s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.) Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sent

49、ences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speakers knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such

50、as stress, embarrassment, etc Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶尔旳).9.How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance? And w

51、hat is their difference?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study.They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of lan

52、gue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?Language is a

53、 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language i

54、s vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言旳甄别性特性是什么？ 1

55、.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. T

56、he arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（发明性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes poss

57、ible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before. 3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two l

58、evels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of lan

59、guage enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. 4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future,

60、 or far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 5. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）： （课本答案：details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as

61、a means of limited communication）While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.12.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirel

62、y arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc. Take compounds for anoth

63、er example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary. Chapter 2: Phonology1.Define the terms: 1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s

64、 languages2).auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. 3).acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.4).international phonetic alphabet IPA: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic tra