国际经济学克鲁格曼教材问题详解

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1、wordProblems and Answers to Chapter 2 Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canadas is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australias. Why should this be the case? 加拿大和澳大利亚都是英语国家

2、，两国的人口规模也相当加拿大多60%，但是相对各自的GDP而言，加拿大的贸易额是澳大利亚的两倍，为什么如此？A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume of trade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Considering the distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher than

3、 that of Canada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to the USA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy, making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky. GDP 不是解释两国贸易量的唯一重要因素，距离也是至关重要的因素之一。考虑到距离，澳大利亚的进出口运输本钱相对更高，因此减少了贸易吸引力。因为

4、加拿大与美国相邻，而澳大利亚不与任何一个大经济体相邻，这使得加拿大更加开放，而澳大利亚更加自给自足。Q2:Mexico and Brazil have very different trading patterns. Mexico trades mainly with the United States, Brazil trades about equally with the United States and with the European Union; Mexico does much more trade relative to its GDP. Explain these dif

5、ferences using the gravity model. 墨西哥和巴西各自的贸易模式不同。墨西哥主要与美国贸易，巴西与美国和欧盟的贸易量大致相当。墨西哥的贸易量相对其GDP而言很大。用引力模型解释这种现象。A2:Mexico is close to the United States, but is very far from the European Union, so Mexicos value of trade with the United States is large. Brazil is far from both the United States and Europ

6、ean Union, thus, Brazils volume of trade with the United States and with the European Union is generally equivalent. Mexicos volume of trade is larger than Brazils, for two reasons: one is that Mexico is adjacent to the United States which is a large economy; the other is that Mexico is one of the m

7、embers of NAFTA. Brazil is far from any large economy, and the size of the economy for the countries which have signed free trade agreements with Brazil is relatively small. 墨西哥与美国毗邻，但是距离欧盟很远，因此它与美国的贸易量很大。巴西离美国和欧盟都很远，因此巴西与美国和欧盟的贸易量大致相当。墨西哥贸易量比巴西大，其原因一方面由于墨西哥离大经济体美国近，另一方面由于它是北美贸易协定的成员国之一。巴西远离任何一个大经济体

8、，与它签订自由贸易协定的国家经济规模都比拟小。Q3:Equation (2.1) says that trade between any two countries is proportional to the product of their GDPs. Does this mean that the GDP of every country in the world were to increase by 50%, world trade would increase by 125%? Analyze the question using the simple example shown

9、in Table 2-2. 方程(2.1) 明确两个国家之间的贸易和它们的GDP乘积成正比。这是否意味着如果每个国家的GDP增加50%, 世界的贸易量就增加125%？分析这个问题用表格2-2 的简单例子。A3:Yes. If both countriesGDP increase by 50%, other things equal, multiplying the right hand side of equation (2.1) by (1+50%)*(1+50%)=225% and multiplying the left hand side of equation (2.1) by 1+

10、125%=225%, therefore, the volume of trade will increase 125%. Using Table 2-2, if four countriesGDP all increase 50%, the volume of trade will increase 125% correspondingly, so the first line of the table will bee: 1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 Country As GDP increases to 4*(1+50%) =6 (3.

11、6+0.9+0.9= 5.4). According to the assumption, the results are reasonable because the results mean that part of country As ine is consumed on imports and part of country As ine is consumed on domestic products, although the portion consumed domestically is smaller than that of imports. 是的。如果两个国家的GDP均

12、增加50%，其他条件不变，方程(2.1) 的右边乘以(1+50%)*(1+50%)=225%, 方程式的左边乘以1+125%=225%，所以，世界的贸易量就增加125%。结合表格2-2，如果四个国家的GDP都增加50%倍，贸易量也增加125%，如此表格第一行的数据应为：1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 A国的GDP增加到4*(1+50%)=6 (3.6+0.9+0.9= 5.4)。根据假设，这个结果是合理的因为这意味着A国的支出一局部从国外进口一局部收入用于消费本国的产品，虽然用于本国消费的局部少于对其他国家的进口。Q4: Over the pa

13、st few decades, East Asian economies have increased their share of world GDP. Similarly, intra-East Asian trade - that is, trade among East Asian nations - has grown as a share of world trade. More than that, East Asian countries 3 do an increasing share of their trade with each other. Explain why,

14、using the gravity model. 在过去的几十年中，东亚国家增加了它们在世界GDP中的份额。同样，不仅东亚国家整体的贸易在世界贸易中的份额增加了，而且东亚国家内相互间的贸易也增加了。应用引力模型解释这一现象。A4:In the past, East Asian countries are all small economies, meaning that their size of economies is small and they are unable to import a lot of goods. As these East Asian countries bee

15、richer, the demand increases and they can import more than before. Considering that East Asian countries have been rich countries, they bee trading partners with each other; however, they mainly imported goods from rich countries. Based on gravity model, even if the distance between South Korea and

16、Taiwan is small, the volume of the two countries is very small due to their small size of economies. But now, because their GDP have increased, the volume of trade between the two countries increased correspondingly. 之前，东亚国家都是小经济体，这说明它们的市场规模很小，不能大量进口。随着它们越来越富裕，消费需求增加，它们也就能更多地进口了。这样，之前它们主要向富国出口，现在它们自

17、己成为了富国，互相也就成为了贸易对象。根据引力模型，当韩国和某某GDP规模很小时，意味着尽管两国的距离很近，但是两国之间的贸易量很小。现在它们GDP增加了，它们之间的贸易量也随之增大了。Q5:A century ago, most French imports came from relatively distant locations: North America, Latin America, and Asia. Today, most French imports e from other European countries. How does this fit with the ch

18、anging types of goods that make up world trade? 一个世纪以前，法国的进口产品来自相对遥远的地区：北美、拉丁美洲，和亚洲。今天，法国绝大局部进口产品来自其他欧洲国家。这种变化是如何迎合不断变化的世界贸易产品结构的？A5:A century ago, each countrys trading products are determined by the countrys climate and geography. The climate and natural resources endowments in French are very sim

19、ilar to that of other European countries; therefore, French can only import different products, such as, cotton, rubber, and etc, from other western hemisphere (North America, Latin America) and Asia. However, after industrial revolution, manufacturing trade increased dramatically. With the developm

20、ent of transportation and municate technology, Frenchs trade volume with other European countries increases correspondingly, as the gravity model predicted directly. 一个世纪以前，各国贸易产品是由气候和地理条件决定的。法国的气候和自然资源禀赋和欧洲其他国家很相似，这样法国只能从西半球其他国家、亚洲进口像棉花、橡胶这样的产品，从欧洲其他国家进口产品很少。工业革命之后，制造品贸易增长，并且随着交通和通讯的改良继续扩X，因此法国转向与欧

21、洲其他经济体大量开展贸易是自然而然的，这就是引力模型的一个直接预测。Chapter 31Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana production it is 2.aGraph out the production possibilities frontier: bWhat is the opportunity cost of

22、 apples in terms of bananas?cIn the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be? In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions are determined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earnings in a petitive economy, only

23、 when will both goods be produced. So在没有贸易时，因为劳方是唯一的生产要素，并且供给决定取决于个体尝试最大化他们的在竞争经济的收入，只有当两件物品将被生产。 因此2Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with a labor force of 800. Foreigns unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1.

24、 aGraph Foreigns production possibilities frontier: bConstruct the world relative supply curve.3Now suppose world relative demand takes the following form: Demand for apples/demand for bananas = price of bananas/price of apples.aGraph the relative demand curve along with the relative supply curve: W

25、hen the market achieves its equilibrium,we haveRD is a hyperbola bWhat is the equilibrium relative price of apples? The equilibrium relative price of apples is determined by the intersection of the RD and RS curves. RD: RS: cDescribe the pattern of trade.In this two-country world, Home will speciali

26、ze in the apple production, export apples and import bananas. Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. dShow that both Home and Foreign gain from trade. International trade allows Home and Foreign to consume anywhere within the colored lines, which lie outs

27、ide the countries production possibility frontiers. And the indirect method, specializing in producing only one production then trade with other country, is a more efficient method than direct production. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign cou

28、ld gain by one foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. So both Home and Foreign gain from trade.国际贸易允许本国和外国任何地方在分界限之内消耗，在一国生产可能性边境

29、之外说谎。 并且间接方法，专门研究导致一生产比直接生产然后只换与其他国家，是一个高效率的方法。 在没有贸易时，首页可能由前面二个苹果获取三个香蕉，并且外国可能由一前面五个香蕉获取。 贸易允许每个国家为一个苹果换二个香蕉。 首页只能由前面二个苹果然后获取四个香蕉，当外国时能由前面二个香蕉获取一个苹果。 因此首页和从贸易的外国获取。4Suppose that instead of 1200 workers, Home had 2400. Find the equilibrium relative price. What can you say about the efficiency of wor

30、ld production and the division of the gains from trade between Home and Foreign in this case?RD: RS: In this case, Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. But Home will produce bananas and apples at the same time. And the opportunity cost of bananas in ter

31、ms of apples for Home remains the same. So Home neither gains nor loses but Foreign gains from trade.在这种情况下，外国将专门研究香蕉生产，出口香蕉和进口苹果。 但是本国同时将生产香蕉和苹果。 并且香蕉的机会本钱根据苹果的本国的依然是同样。 因此本国不获取也不丢失，而是从贸易的外国获取。5Suppose that Home has 2400 workers, but they are only half as production in both industries as we have be

32、en assuming, Construct the world relative supply curve and determine the equilibrium relative price. How do the gains from trade pare with those in the case described in problem 4?In this case, the labor is doubled while the productivity of labor is halved, so the effective laborremains the same. So

33、 the answer is similar to that in 3. And both Home and Foreign can gain from trade. But Foreign gains lesser pare with that in the case 4.6Korean workers earn only $2.50 an hour; if we allow Korea to export as much as it likes to the United States, our workers will be forced down to the same level.

34、You cant import a $5 shirt without importing the $2.50 wage that goes with it.Discuss. In fact, relative wage rate is determined by parative productivity and the relative demand for goods. Koreas low wage reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. Actu

35、ally, trade with a less productive, low wage country can raise the welfare and standard of living of countries with high productivity, such as United States. So this pauper labor argument is wrong.实际上，相对工资率取决于比拟生产力和对物品的相对需求。 Koreas低工资反射事实韩国比多数产业的美国较不有生产力的。 实际上，与一个较不有生产力，低工资国家的贸易可能培养国家福利和生活水平有高生产力的，例

36、如美国。 因此这个叫花子劳方论据是错误的。 7Japanese labor productivity is roughly the same as that of the United States in the manufacturing sector (higher in some industries, lower in others), while the United States, is still considerably more productive in the service sector. But most services are non-traded. Some a

37、nalysts have argued that this poses a problem for the United States, because our parative advantage lies in things we cannot sell on world markets. What is wrong with this argument?The petitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative w

38、ages across industries. So there are four aspects should be taken into account before we reach conclusion: both the industries and service sectors of Japan and U.S., not just the two service sectors. So this statement does not bade on the reasonable logic.所有产业的竞争优势取决于产业的相对生产力和横跨产业的亲戚薪水。 因此，在我们得出结论之前

39、，有四个方面应该考虑到： 产业和日本和美国，不仅二个服务部门的服务部门。 不因此这个声明在合理的逻辑出了价。8Anyone who has visited Japan knows it is an incredibly expensive place; althoughJapanese workers earn about the same as their U.S. counterparts, the purchasing power of their ines is about one-third less. Extend your discussing from question 7 t

40、o explain this observation. (Hint: Think about wages and the implied prices of non-trade goods.) The relative higher purchasing power of U.S. is sustained and maintained by its considerably higher productivity in services. Because most of those services are non-traded, Japanese could not benefit fro

41、m those lower service costs. And U.S. does not have to face a lower international price of services. So the purchasing power of Japanese is just one-third of their U.S. counterparts.美国的相对更高的购置力由它的在服务的相当地更高的生产力承受并且维护。 由于大多那些服务non-traded，日语不可能受益于那些更低的服务费用。 并且美国不必须面对服务的一个更低的国际价格。 因此日语的购置力是他们的美国相对物的三分之一

42、。9How does the fact that many goods are non-traded affect the extent of possible gains from trade?Actually the gains from trade depended on the proportion of non-traded goods. The gains will increase as the proportion of non-traded goods decrease. 10We have focused on the case of trade involving onl

43、y two countries. Suppose that there are many countries capable of producing two goods, and that each country has only one factor of production, labor. What could we say about the pattern of production and in this case? (Hint: Try constructing the world relative supply curve.) Any countries to the le

44、ft of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a parative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods. Ch

45、apter 41. In 1986, the price of oil on world markets dropped sharply. Since the United States is an oil-importing country, this was widely regarded as good for the U.S. economy. Yet in Texas and Louisiana 1986 was a year of economic decline. Why?It can deduce that Texas and Louisiana are oil-produci

46、ng states of United States. So when the price of oil on world markets declined, the real wage of this industry fell in terms of other goods. This might be the reason of economic decline in these two states in 1986.2。An economy can produce good 1 using labor and capital and good 2 using labor and lan

47、d. The total supply of labor is 100 units. Given the supply of capital, the outputs of the two goods depends on labor input as follows:To analyze the economys production possibility frontier, consider how the output mix changes as labor is shifted between the two sectors.a. Graph the production func

48、tions for good 1 and good 2. b. Graph the production possibility frontier. Why is it curved?Q1Q2L1L2PPFThe PPF is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good. The total labor supply is fixed. So as L1 rises, MPL1 falls; correspondingly, as L2 falls, MPL2 rises. So PP gets steeper

49、as we move down it to the right.2. The marginal product of labor curves corresponding to the production functions in problem2 are as follows:a. Suppose that the price of good 2 relative to that of good 1 is 2. Determine graphically the wage rate and the allocation of labor between the two sectors.Wi

50、th the assumption that labor is freely mobile between sectors, it will move from the low-wage sector to the high-wage sector until wages are equalized. So in equilibrium, the wage rate is equal to the value of labors marginal product.假设劳方自由地是在区段之间的机动性，它从低工资的区段将移动向high-wage区段，直到薪水被调平。 因此在平衡，工资率与labor

51、s边际产品的价值是相等的。The abscissa of point of intersection illustrated above should be between (20, 30). Since we only have to find out the approximate answer, linear function could be employed.The labor allocation between the sectors is approximately L1=27 and L2=73. The wage rate is approximately 0.98.被说明

52、的交点横坐标以上应该之间(20， 30)。 因为我们必须只发现近似答复，线性函数可能被使用。在区段之间的The辛苦分派是大约L1=27和L2=73。 工资率是大约0.98。b. Using the graph drawn for problem 2, determine the output of each sector. Then confirm graphically that the slop of the production possibility frontier at that point equals the relative price.Q1Q2L1L2PPFThe rela

53、tive price is P2/P1=2 and we have got the approximate labor allocation, so we can employ the linear function again to calculate the approximate output of each sector: Q1=44 and Q2=90.相对价格是P2/P1=2，并且我们有近似辛苦分派，因此我们可以再使用线性函数计算每个区段近似产品： Q1=44和Q2=90。c. Suppose that the relative price of good 2 falls to 1

54、. Repeat (a) and (b).The relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (1=62, L2=38). This also leads to an output adjustment, that is, production of good 2 falls to 68 units and production of good 1

55、 rises to 76 units. And the wage rate is approximately equal to 0.74.在导致的价格的相对衰落的好2将被再分配的劳方： 劳方被画出于生产好2并且输入好1的生产(1=62， L2=38)。 这也导致输出调整，即，好2个秋天到68个单位的生产和生产好1上升到76个单位。 并且工资率是大约相等到0.74。 Q1Q2L1L2PPFd. Calculate the effects of the price change on the ine of the specific factors in sectors 1 and 2.With t

56、he relative price change from P2/P1=2 to P2/P1=1, the price of good 2 has fallen by 50 percent, while the price of good 1 has stayed the same. Wages have fallen too, but by less than the fall in P2 (wages fell approximately 25 percent). Thus, the real wage relative to P2 actually rises while real wa

57、ge relative to P1 falls. Hence, to determine the welfare consequence for workers, the information about their consumption shares of good 1 and good 2 is needed. 相对价格变动，而价格的好1停留了同样，从P2/P1=2到P2/P1=1，价格的好2由50%下落了。 薪水由较少比在P2的秋天下落了，但是(薪水落大约25%)。 因此，当实际工资相对P1落时，实际工资相对P2实际上上升。 因此，确定工作者的福利救济后果，关于他们的消耗量份额的信息

58、好1和好2是需要的。3. In the text we examined the impacts of increases in the supply of capital and land. But what if the mobile factor, labor, increases in supply?a Analyze the qualitative effects of an increase in the supply of labor in the specific factors model, holding the price of both goods constant.F

59、or an economy producing two goods, X an Y, with labor demands reflected by their marginal revenue product curves, there is an initial wage of w1 and an initial labor allocation of Lx=OxA and Ly=OyA. When the supply of labor increases, the right boundary of the diagram illustrated below pushed out to

60、 Oy. The demand for labor in sector Y is pulled rightward with the boundary. The new intersection of the labor demand curves shows that labor expands in both sectors, and therefore output of both X and Y also expand. The relative expansion of output is ambiguous. Wages paid to workers fall. Wb Graph

61、 the effect on the equilibrium for the numerical example in problems 2 and 3, given a relative price of 1, when the labor force expands from 100 to 140. With the law of diminishing returns, the new production possibility frontier is more concave and steeper (flatter) at the ends when total labor sup

62、ply increases.L1 increase to 90 from 62 and L2 increases to 50 from 38. Wages decline from 0.74 to 0.60. This new allocation of labor leads to a new output mix of approximately Q1=85 and Q2=77.Q1Q2L1L2PPFChapter 41 In the United States where land is cheap, the ratio of land to labor used in cattle r

63、ising is higher than that of land used in wheat growing. But in more crowded countries, where land is expensive and labor is cheap, it is mon to raise cows by using less land and more labor than Americans use to grow wheat. Can we still say that raising cattle is land intensive pared with farming wh

64、eat? Why or why not?The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used in production, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries too if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that cou